In Kotlin, what is the idiomatic way to deal with nullable values, referencing or converting them

If I have a nullable type Xyz?, I want to reference it or convert it to a non-nullable type Xyz. What is the idiomatic way of doing so in Kotlin?

For example, this code is in error:

val something: Xyz? = createPossiblyNullXyz()
something.foo() // Error: "Only safe (?.) or non-null asserted (!!.) calls are allowed on a nullable receiver of type Xyz?"

But if I check null first it is allowed, why?

val something: Xyz? = createPossiblyNullXyz()
if (something != null) {
    something.foo() 
}

How do I change or treat a value as not null without requiring the if check, assuming I know for sure it is truly never null? For example, here I am retrieving a value from a map that I can guarantee exists and the result of get() is not null. But I have an error:

val map = mapOf("a" to 65,"b" to 66,"c" to 67)
val something = map.get("a")
something.toLong() // Error: "Only safe (?.) or non-null asserted (!!.) calls are allowed on a nullable receiver of type Int?"

The method get() thinks it is possible that the item is missing and returns type Int?. Therefore, what is the best way to force the type of the value to be not nullable?

Note: this question is intentionally written and answered by the author (Self-Answered Questions), so that the idiomatic answers to commonly asked Kotlin topics are present in SO. Also to clarify some really old answers written for alphas of Kotlin that are not accurate for current-day Kotlin.